South Africa
Population in 2012: | 50.7m |
People newly diagnosed with cancer (excluding NMSC) / yr: | 77,400 |
Age-standardised rate, incidence per 100,000 people/yr: | 187.1 |
Risk of getting cancer before age 75: | 19.0% |
People dying from cancer /yr: | 47,400 |


Regional Organisations (19 links)
Established 2002 to promote awareness breast cancer and a multi-disciplinary approach to breast cancer via the establishment of a “Breast Cancer Chain of Survival”.
Advocacy organisation formed in 2008.
Cancer Association of South Africa
CANSA
A community-driven and volunteer-based organization founded in 1931, now with 45 regional offices. The association promotes health in all communities within South Africa, through advocacy and supporting research, prevention, early detection and care.
CANSA and Cervical cancer vaccines May 2013
Cancer Association of South Africa
Cancer Association of South Africa welcoms the Government's decision to vaccinate schoolgirls against cervical cancer starting 2014.
Cancer Association of South Africa
CANSA has Mobile Health Units which travel to remote areas throughout South Africa to reach people who would otherwise not have access to screening. These include Pap smears, Prostate Specific Antigen tests (PSA), breast examinations...
Childhood Cancer Foundation South Africa
CHOC
A national parents group, founded in 1979. The Web site includes details of events, fundraising, research and information about childhood cancers and treatments.
A non-profit organization supporting children with cancer and their families across South Africa.
National Cancer Registry, South Africa
Prostate Cancer Foundation, South Africa
A non-profit organisation promoting public awareness, education heath professionals, advocacy and providing support.
South African Children's Study Cancer Group
Membership group for medically or Scientifically qualified South Africans of good professional standing who have a major interest in the study or practice of paediatric oncology.
South African Head and Neck Oncology Society
SAHNOS
Professional society that aims to advance the knowledge of all aspects of Head and Neck Oncology relevant to the treatment, reconstruction and rehabilitation for the benefit of both patients and colleagues.
South African Oncology Social Work Forum
A forum for oncology social workers which seeks to promote the concept and practice of the psycho-social care of people with cancer, their families and care givers.
South African Society for Clinical and Radiation Oncologists
SASCRO
Professional society for Clinical and Radiation Oncologists practising in South Africa.
South African Society of Gynaecologic Oncology
Professional society affiliated to the South African Society of Obstetrics and Gynaecology.
Latest Research Publications from South Africa
A multi-centre evaluation of malignant odontogenic tumours in Nigeria.
Pan Afr Med J. 2019; 33:18 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Methods: this study reviewed the clinicopathological data on 63 cases of MOT diagnosed over 25 years in five major tertiary dental hospitals in Nigeria. All MOT cases were reclassified according to the recent revision to the 2017 WHO classification of odontogenic tumours.
Results: from a total of 10,446 biopsies of oral and jaw lesions seen at the 5 study centres over the 25-year study period, 2199 (21.05%) cases were found to be odontogenic tumours (OTs), of which 63 were MOT. MOTs constituted 0.60% of the total biopsy cases and 2.86% of OTs. Odontogenic carcinomas presented with a mean age higher than odontogenic sarcomas. According to our 2017 WHO reclassification of MOTs, odontogenic carcinomas, ameloblastic carcinomas and primary intraosseous carcinomas were found to be the top three lesions, respectively. Carcinosarcomas were found to be extremely rare.
Conclusion: using a multi-centre approach is a robust way to reduce diagnostic challenges associated with rare maxillofacial lesions such as MOTs.
Prevalence of precancerous cervical lesions in women attending Mezam Polyclinic Bamenda, Cameroon.
Pan Afr Med J. 2019; 32:174 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Methods: A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted from August 09th to October 17th 2017. A total of 60 women participated, and were screened for precancerous cervical lesion. Data were collected by using a questionnaire. Visual inspection with acetic acid and visual inspection with Lugol's iodine was applied for the screening. SPSS version 16.0 was used for data entry and analysis. Logistic regression analysis was fitted and odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals and p-values were computed to identify factors associated with precancerous cervical cancer lesion.
Results: Out of 60 study participants, 2(3.33%) were found to be positive for precancerous cervical cancer lesion.
Conclusion: The prevalence of precancerous cervical lesion in women that consulted at the Mezam polyclinic is high.
Cervical cancer in the Bamenda Regional Hospital, North West Region of Cameroon: a retrospective study.
Pan Afr Med J. 2019; 32:90 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Methods: The objective of this study was to determine the proportion of cervical cancer among other types of cancers in the cancer registry of the Bamenda Regional Hospital, North West Region of Cameroon from past records. We reviewed all records from the registry of patients who attended the Bamenda Regional Hospital to screen and/or be operated upon for cervical cancer and other types of cancer. Socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of cases were captured using a data collection sheet: age, type of cancer, stage of cancer, type of surgery carried out and date of surgery. Data were entered and analysed in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 software.
Results: 59 cancer cases were received in the center between 2012 and 2017. Of these, 31 (52%) had cervical cancer. Most patients who screened positive for cancer of the cervix were of the 50-54 age groups. Most of these patients (47.5%), were received at late stages (stages 3 and 4).
Conclusion: Over half (52%) of the patients receiving cancer care in this center have cervical cancer and generally turn up late for management.
Spindle Cell Lesions of the Breast on Fine-Needle Aspiration Biopsy: A Miscellany of Masses.
Acta Cytol. 2019; 63(4):328-339 [PubMed] Related Publications
The International Academy of Cytology Yokohama System for Reporting Breast Fine-Needle Aspiration Biopsy Cytopathology.
Acta Cytol. 2019; 63(4):257-273 [PubMed] Related Publications
The determinants and impact of diagnostic delay in lymphoma in a TB and HIV endemic setting.
BMC Cancer. 2019; 19(1):384 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
METHODS: We analysed the time to diagnosis and treatment in patients using predetermined time intervals. Univariate and multivariable analyses were performed to determine the relationship between patient and disease-specific variables with delays to diagnosis. We were particularly interested in the impact of HIV, empiric tuberculosis therapy and fine-needle aspirate for cytology (FNAC) in contributing to delay.
RESULTS: Patients (n = 163), 29% HIV-infected, waited a median of 4 weeks before seeking medical attention. It took a median of 7 weeks for the diagnosis of lymphoma to be made from the time the patient sought medical attention, termed the healthcare practitioner interval. In multivariable logistic regression analysis, diagnostic delay > 6 weeks was associated with late-stage disease (OR 2.3, 95% CI 1.1-5.2) and Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) (OR 3.0, 95% CI 1.1-8.0). HIV status was not associated with diagnostic delay (OR 0.9, 95% CI 0.3-2.2). The median time to diagnosis was a median of 4 weeks longer for patients on tuberculous (TB) therapy (n = 16, p = 0.28) and patients who underwent an FNAC (n = 63, p = 0.04). Where FNAC was performed, it was diagnostic for lymphoma in only 11%. Diagnostic delay was not associated with overall survival.
CONCLUSIONS: Time-to-diagnosis of lymphoma in South Africa was similar to that reported from high-income countries and shows significant periods of delay between the onset of symptoms to diagnosis and treatment. The longest period of delay was in the health practitioner interval. Education regarding the significance of lymphadenopathy for both patients and health care practitioners and appropriate investigative steps preferably by best-practice algorithms specific to TB-endemic areas are needed to shorten the time-to-diagnosis of lymphoma.
The interplay between viruses & host microRNAs in cancer - An emerging role for HIV in oncogenesis.
Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2019; 137:108-114 [PubMed] Related Publications
Sociodemographic inequities in cervical cancer screening, treatment and care amongst women aged at least 25 years: evidence from surveys in Harare, Zimbabwe.
BMC Public Health. 2019; 19(1):428 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
METHODS: Two cross sectional surveys were conducted in Harare with a total sample of 277 women aged at least 25 years. In the community survey, stratified random sampling was conducted to select 143 healthy women in Glen View, Cranborne, Highlands and Hopely communities of Harare to present high, medium, low density suburbs and rural areas respectively. In the patient survey, 134 histologically confirmed cervical cancer patients were also randomly selected at Harare hospital, Parirenyatwa Hospital and Island Hospice during their routine visits or while in hospital admission. All consenting participants were interviewed using a validated structured questionnaire programmed in Surveytogo software in an android tablet. Data was analyzed using STATA version 14 to yield descriptive statistics, bivariate and multivariate logistic regression outcomes for the study.
RESULTS: Women who reported ever screening for cervical cancer were only 29%. Cervical cancer screening was less likely in women affiliated to major religions (p < 0.05) and those who never visited health facilities or doctors or visited once in previous 6 months (p < 0.05). Ninety-two (69%) of selected patients were on treatment. Women with cervical cancer affiliated to protestant churches were 68 times [95% CI: 1.22 to 381] more likely to utilize treatment and care services compared to those in other religions (p = 0.040). Province of residence, education, occupation, marital status, income (personal and household), wealth, medical aid status, having a regular doctor, frequency of visiting health facilities, sources of cervical cancer information and knowledge of treatability of cervical cancer were not associated with cervical cancer screening and treatment respectively.
CONCLUSION: This study revealed few variations in the participation of women in cervical cancer screening and treatment explained only by religious affiliations and usage of health facilities. Strengthening of health education in communities including churches and universal healthcare coverage are recommended strategies to improve uptake of screening and treatment of cervical cancer.
Genome-wide association and transcriptome studies identify target genes and risk loci for breast cancer.
Nat Commun. 2019; 10(1):1741 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Effect of dose responses of hydrophilic aluminium (III) phthalocyanine chloride tetrasulphonate based photosensitizer on lung cancer cells.
J Photochem Photobiol B. 2019; 194:96-106 [PubMed] Related Publications
Treatment Options for Hypopharyngeal Cancer in Developing Countries in Africa/South America/Asia.
Adv Otorhinolaryngol. 2019; 83:159-166 [PubMed] Related Publications
Diagnosis of fusion genes using targeted RNA sequencing.
Nat Commun. 2019; 10(1):1388 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Effects of glutamine deprivation on oxidative stress and cell survival in breast cell lines.
Biol Res. 2019; 52(1):15 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
RESULTS: Spectrophotometry demonstrated that glutamine deprivation resulted in decreased cell growth in a time-dependent manner. MCF-7 cell growth was decreased to 61% after 96 h of glutamine deprivation; MDA-MB-231 cell growth was decreased to 78% cell growth after 96 h of glutamine deprivation, MCF-10A cell growth was decreased 89% after 96 h of glutamine deprivation and BT-20 cell growth decreased to 86% after 24 h of glutamine deprivation and remained unchanged until 96 h of glutamine deprivation. Glutamine deprivation resulted in oxidative stress where superoxide levels were significantly elevated after 96 h in the MCF-7- and MDA-MB-231 cell lines. Time-dependent production of hydrogen peroxide was accompanied by aberrant mitochondrial membrane potential. The effects of ROS and mitochondrial membrane potential were more prominently observed in the MCF-7 cell line when compared to the MDA-MB-231-, MCF-10A- and BT-20 cell lines. Cell cycle progression revealed that glutamine deprivation resulted in a significant increase in the S-phase after 72 h of glutamine deprivation in the MCF-7 cell line. Apoptosis induction resulted in a decrease in viable cells in all cell lines following glutamine deprivation. In the MCF-7 cells, 87.61% of viable cells were present after 24 h of glutamine deprivation.
CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that glutamine deprivation resulted in decreased cell proliferation, time-dependent- and cell line-dependent ROS generation, aberrant mitochondrial membrane potential and disrupted cell cycle progression. In addition, the estrogen receptor positive MCF-7 cell line was more prominently affected. This study contributes to knowledge regarding the sensitivity of breast cancer cells and non-tumorigenic cells to glutamine deprivation.
The garlic compound ajoene covalently binds vimentin, disrupts the vimentin network and exerts anti-metastatic activity in cancer cells.
BMC Cancer. 2019; 19(1):248 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
METHODS: Using our fluorescently labelled ajoene analogue called dansyl-ajoene, ajoene's protein targets in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells were tagged and separated by 2D electrophoresis. A predominant band was identified by MALDI-TOF MS/MS to be vimentin. Target validation experiments were performed using pure recombinant vimentin protein. Computational modelling of vimentin bound to ajoene was performed using Schrödinger and pK
RESULTS: The dominant protein tagged by dansyl-ajoene was identified to be the 57 kDa protein vimentin. The vimentin target was validated to reveal that ajoene and dansyl-ajoene covalently bind to recombinant vimentin via a disulfide linkage at Cys-328. Computational modelling showed Cys-328 to be exposed at the termini of the vimentin tetramer. Treatment of MDA-MB-231 or HeLa cells with a non-cytotoxic concentration of ajoene caused the vimentin filament network to condense; and to increase vimentin protein expression. Ajoene inhibited the invasion and migration of both cancer cell lines which was found to be dependent on the presence of vimentin. Vimentin overexpression caused cells to become more migratory, an effect that was completely rescued by ajoene.
CONCLUSIONS: The garlic-derived phytochemical ajoene targets and covalently modifies vimentin in cancer cells by S-thiolating Cys-328. This interaction results in the disruption of the vimentin filament network and contributes to the anti-metastatic activity of ajoene in cancer cells.
Nomogram based on homogeneous and heterogeneous associated factors for predicting bone metastases in patients with different histological types of lung cancer.
BMC Cancer. 2019; 19(1):238 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
PATIENTS AND METHODS: This study was a descriptive study that basing on the invasive lung cancer patients diagnosed between 2010 and 2014 in Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program. A total of 125,652 adult patients were retrieved. Logistic regression analysis was conducted to investigate homogeneous and heterogeneous factors for BM occurrence. Nomogram was constructed to predict the risk for developing BM and the performance was evaluated by the receiver operating characteristics curve (ROC) and the calibration curve. The overall survival of the patients with BM was analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier method and the survival differences were tested by the log-rank test.
RESULTS: A total of 25,645 (20.9%) were reported to have BM, and the prevalence in adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, small cell lung cancer (SCLC), large cell lung cancer (LCLC), and non-small cell lung cancer/not otherwise specified lung cancer (NSCLC/NOS) were 24.4, 12.5, 24.7, 19.5 and 19.4%, respectively, with significant difference (P < 0.001). Male gender, more metastatic sites and lymphatic metastasis were positively associated with BM in all lung cancer subtypes. Larger tumor size was positively associated with BM in all the lung cancer subtypes except for NSCLC/NOS. Poorly differentiated histology was positively associated with adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and NSCLC/NOS. The calibration curve and ROC curve exhibited good performance for predicting BM. The median survival of the bone metastatic lung cancer patients was 4.00 (95%CI: 3.89-4.11) months. With the increased number of the other metastatic sites (brain, lung and liver metastasis), the survival significantly decreased (p < 0.001).
CONCLUSION: Different lung cancer histological subtypes exhibited distinct prevalence and homogeneity and heterogeneity associated factors for BM. The nomogram has good calibration and discrimination for predicting BM of lung cancer.
Realizing the Clinical Potential of Immunogenic Cell Death in Cancer Chemotherapy and Radiotherapy.
Int J Mol Sci. 2019; 20(4) [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Metagenomic and metatranscriptomic analysis of human prostate microbiota from patients with prostate cancer.
BMC Genomics. 2019; 20(1):146 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
RESULTS: The metagenome and metatranscriptome of tumour and the adjacent benign tissues were assessed in 65 Chinese radical prostatectomy specimens. Escherichia, Propionibacterium, Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas were abundant in both metagenome and metatranscriptome, thus constituting the core of the prostate microbiome. The biodiversity of the microbiomes could not be differentiated between the matched tumour/benign specimens or between the tumour specimens of low and high Gleason Scores. The expression profile of ten Pseudomonas genes was strongly correlated with that of eight host small RNA genes; three of the RNA genes may negatively associate with metastasis. Few viruses could be identified from the prostate microbiomes.
CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study of the human prostate microbiome employing an integrated metagenomics and metatranscriptomics approach. In this Chinese cohort, both metagenome and metatranscriptome analyses showed a non-sterile microenvironment in the prostate of PCa patients, but we did not find links between the microbiome and local progression of PCa. However, the correlated expression of Pseudomonas genes and human small RNA genes may provide tantalizing preliminary evidence that Pseudomonas infection may impede metastasis.
Cisplatin and radiation therapy in HIV-positive women with locally advanced cervical cancer in sub-Saharan Africa: A phase II study of the AIDS malignancy consortium.
Gynecol Oncol. 2019; 153(1):20-25 [PubMed] Article available free on PMC after 01/04/2020 Related Publications
PATIENTS AND METHODS: Eligible participants had HIV infection and untreated, histologically-confirmed, invasive carcinoma of the uterine cervix, FIGO stages IB2, IIA (if tumor >4 cm), IIB, IIIA, IIIB, or IVA and met standard eligibility criteria. Subjects were prescribed 41.4-45 Gy external beam radiation therapy followed by high dose rate brachytherapy concomitant with up to six weekly doses of cisplatin 40 mg/m2 and were followed for 12 months.
RESULTS: Sixty-four women were screened at two sites in sub-Saharan Africa, of whom 40 eligible participants were enrolled, for a screening ratio of 1.60. Of the 38 eligible participants who initiated study treatment, 31 (82%) completed treatment. By the 12-month follow-up visit, 7 women had died of disease and 29 of 31 (94%) returned for follow-up. One-year progression-free survival was 76.3% (95% CI, 59.4-86.9%), and did not significantly differ according to stage at entry (p = 0.581). Participant-reported adherence to ART was high; by 12 months, 93% of participants had an undetectable viral load. The most common grade 3 or 4 adverse event was decreased lymphocyte count that affected all treated participants. Non-hematologic serious adverse events were similar to those observed in women with LACC without HIV infection.
CONCLUSIONS: The majority of HIV-infected women with LACC can complete concomitant chemoradiotherapy with the same cisplatin dose used in HIV-uninfected women with comparable tolerability and high ART adherence while on treatment.
Quality of life after total laryngectomy: evaluating the effect of socioeconomic status.
J Laryngol Otol. 2019; 133(2):129-134 [PubMed] Related Publications
METHOD: Forty-seven patients (20 state- and 27 private-sector) who underwent total laryngectomy between 1998 and 2014 responded to the University of Washington Quality of Life Questionnaire, the Voice-Related Quality of Life Questionnaire and the Brief Illness Perception Questionnaire.
RESULTS: Significant differences were found in socioeconomic status between state- and private-sector patients (p < 0.001). There was no significant difference in overall quality of life between groups (p = 0.210). State-sector patients scored significantly higher Voice-Related Quality of Life Questionnaire scores (p = 0.043). Perception of illness did not differ significantly between groups.
CONCLUSION: Overall quality of life after total laryngectomy appears to be similar in patients from different socioeconomic backgrounds. However, patients from lower socioeconomic circumstances have better voice-related quality of life. The results illustrate the importance of including socioeconomic status when reporting voice outcomes in total laryngectomy patients.
Effect of symmetry and metal nanoparticles on the photophysicochemical and photodynamic therapy properties of cinnamic acid zinc phthalocyanine.
Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc. 2019; 214:49-57 [PubMed] Related Publications
Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma with Bone Metastases: Prevalence, Associated Factors, and Survival Estimation.
Med Sci Monit. 2019; 25:1105-1112 [PubMed] Article available free on PMC after 01/04/2020 Related Publications
Effects of a psychosocial intervention on the quality of life of primary caregivers of women with breast cancer.
Eur J Oncol Nurs. 2019; 38:85-91 [PubMed] Related Publications
METHOD: This was a quasi-experimental study with 108 primary caregivers (54 in both intervention and control groups). The intervention comprised six 90-min educational sessions, held weekly. Topics included information about breast cancer, the emotional aspect of caring, adjustment to the role of caregiver and communication strategies. The intervention group received the psychosocial intervention programme in addition to routine care, and the control group received routine care. Primary outcome (caregiver burden) and caregiver QOL were measured using the Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) and Caregiver Quality of Life Index-Cancer (CQOLC) at baseline, week six and week 12.
RESULTS: The psychosocial intervention reduced caregiver burden at both T1 and T2 (p = 0.000, p = 0.018 respectively) and improved the caregiver QOL (p = 0.000, p = 0.020 respectively) in the intervention group compared to the control group.
CONCLUSION: The psychosocial intervention programme had a positive effect on caregiver burden and QOL. Issues such as sustainability of such programmes and advocacy relating to caregiver burden need further research.
The anti-proliferative effect of apricot and peach kernel extracts on human colon cancer cells in vitro.
BMC Complement Altern Med. 2019; 19(1):32 [PubMed] Article available free on PMC after 01/04/2020 Related Publications
METHODS: Studies were conducted on HT-29 colon cancer cells. The interactive role of three different kernel extractions on the modulation of cell proliferation, apoptosis and cell cycle progression was monitored over 24, 48 and 72 h periods.
RESULTS: After 24 h, all extracts of the South African apricot kernels had a dose related bi-phasic proliferative effect on the HT-29 cells. It stimulated cell proliferation at the lowest and highest concentrations while at 500 μg/mL it inhibited cell proliferation. In contrast, after 72 h, the low concentration inhibited cell proliferation while the 500 μg/mL extracts stimulated cell proliferation. Morphological changes were observed in cells incubated with Chinese kernel extracts after 24 h and South African kernel treatment (1000 μg/mL) after 72 h. A possible intra-S-phase block after 24 and 48 h exposure to South African hydrophilic kernel extracts was observed. This transient block that is more concerned with tolerating and accommodating damage during replication rather than repairing it, could explain the initial anti-proliferative effects observed after 24 h exposure to the various Chinese kernel extract concentrations.
CONCLUSION: Abrogation of the block by exhaustion of the cyanide production, most likely allowed the cells to resume the cell cycle and continue into mitosis, whereas low ATP levels caused by the presence of amygdalin in the kernels, can also cause the induction of pycnosis or necrosis. These results highlight the possible mechanisms of growth inhibition by amygdalin containing extracts and may contribute towards the development of dietary anti-cancer therapies.
Identification of a Novel Quinoxaline-Isoselenourea Targeting the STAT3 Pathway as a Potential Melanoma Therapeutic.
Int J Mol Sci. 2019; 20(3) [PubMed] Article available free on PMC after 01/04/2020 Related Publications
Shared heritability and functional enrichment across six solid cancers.
Nat Commun. 2019; 10(1):431 [PubMed] Article available free on PMC after 01/04/2020 Related Publications
Phenolic Compounds of
Molecules. 2019; 24(3) [PubMed] Article available free on PMC after 01/04/2020 Related Publications
Induction of Cell Death in Human A549 Cells Using 3-(Quinoxaline-3-yl) Prop-2-ynyl Methanosulphonate and 3-(Quinoxaline-3-yl) Prop-2-yn-1-ol.
Molecules. 2019; 24(3) [PubMed] Article available free on PMC after 01/04/2020 Related Publications
Revised FIGO staging for carcinoma of the cervix uteri.
Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2019; 145(1):129-135 [PubMed] Related Publications
METHODS: Review of literature and consensus view of the FIGO Gynecologic Oncology Committee and related societies and organizations.
RESULTS: In stage I, revision of the definition of microinvasion and lesion size as follows. Stage IA: lateral extension measurement is removed; stage IB has three subgroups-stage IB1: invasive carcinomas ≥5 mm and <2 cm in greatest diameter; stage IB2: tumors 2-4 cm; stage IB3: tumors ≥4 cm. Imaging or pathology findings may be used to assess retroperitoneal lymph nodes; if metastatic, the case is assigned stage IIIC; if only pelvic lymph nodes, the case is assigned stage IIIC1; if para-aortic nodes are involved, the case is assigned stage IIIC2. Notations 'r' and 'p' will indicate the method used to derive the stage-i.e., imaging or pathology, respectively-and should be recorded. Routine investigations and other methods (e.g., examination under anesthesia, cystoscopy, proctoscopy, etc.) are not mandatory and are to be recommended based on clinical findings and standard of care.
CONCLUSION: The revised cervical cancer staging is applicable to all resource levels. Data collection and publication will inform future revisions.
Cervical cancer.
Lancet. 2019; 393(10167):169-182 [PubMed] Related Publications
Pain: Persistent postsurgery and bone cancer-related pain.
J Int Med Res. 2019; 47(2):528-543 [PubMed] Article available free on PMC after 01/04/2020 Related Publications